Introduction.

For economic growth in general or expansion of activities at the level of an economic entity, certain minimum necessary conditions are needed, a kind of program - a minimum. One of these conditions is the presence of more or less modern production facilities. Meanwhile, according to various data, the level of depreciation of fixed assets, even in the assessment of uniform depreciation rates that take little into account obsolescence, varies across different sectors of the economy and types of fixed assets from sixty to ninety percent. In these conditions, the issue of modernizing and expanding the range of these resources becomes especially relevant. And since this is so, the problems of planning, accounting and consideration of the feasibility of investing in these resources also acquires particular relevance. Accounting for investments in fixed assets, that is, long-term investments, is the subject of this work.

The course work consists of 2 parts:

1. Theoretical part

2. Practical part.

The practical part is an analysis of the balance sheet of the Meteor plant.

The purpose of the analysis is not only to assess the liquidity of the organization, its assets and the sources of their formation, but also to constantly develop measures aimed at improving these indicators. An analysis of balance sheet liquidity shows in which areas such work needs to be carried out and makes it possible to identify the most important aspects and weakest positions in the activities of an economic entity. In accordance with this, the results of the analysis provide answers to the questions of what are the most important ways to improve the financial condition of the organization.

1 Theoretical part.

1.1 Concept, classification and assessment of long-term investments.

Long-term investments are the costs of creating, increasing the size, as well as acquiring non-current durable assets (over one year), not intended for sale, with the exception of long-term financial investments in government securities, securities and authorized capitals of other organizations.

Long-term investments are associated with the following actions:

Carrying out capital construction in the form of new construction, as well as reconstruction, expansion and technical re-equipment of existing enterprises and non-production facilities;

Acquisition of buildings, structures, equipment, vehicles and other individual objects (or parts thereof) of fixed assets;

Acquisition of land plots and environmental management facilities;

Acquisition and creation of intangible assets (patents, licenses, software products, research and development, design and survey work, etc.).

Completed long-term investments are assessed based on the inventory value of completed construction projects and acquired individual types of fixed assets and other long-term assets.

In the balance sheet, long-term investments are reflected under the item “Construction in progress”. Under this article, the developer shows the cost of unfinished construction carried out by economic and contract methods.

Developers are understood as organizations specializing in performing these functions, in particular organizations for capital construction in cities, directorates of organizations under construction, etc., as well as existing organizations carrying out capital construction.

Maintenance costs for developers are made from funds allocated for financing capital construction and are included in the inventory cost of objects put into operation.

When performing construction work by contract, the developer acts as a customer in relation to the contracting construction organization.

1.2 Organization of accounting for long-term investments.

The main objectives of accounting for long-term investments are:

Timely, complete and reliable reflection of all expenses incurred during the construction of objects by their types and the objects taken into account;

Ensuring control over the progress of construction, commissioning of production facilities and fixed assets;

Correct determination and reflection of the inventory value of commissioned and acquired fixed assets, land plots, environmental management facilities and intangible assets;

Monitoring the availability and use of sources of financing for long-term investments.

Accounting for long-term investments is carried out based on actual expenses:

In general, for construction and for individual objects (buildings, structures, etc.) included in it;

For acquired individual fixed assets, land plots, environmental management facilities and intangible assets.

When constructing facilities, the developer keeps track of costs on an accrual basis from the beginning of construction by reporting periods until the commissioning of the facilities or the complete production of the relevant work and costs.

Along with taking into account costs at actual cost, the developer, regardless of the method of carrying out construction work, keeps records of production capital investments at the contractual cost.

When organizing cost accounting for the construction of facilities, the developer must provide for obtaining information about the reproductive and technological structure of costs, the method of carrying out construction work, as well as the purpose of the facilities under construction and other acquisitions.

Accounting for long-term investments is kept on account 08 “Investments in non-current assets”. This account reflects investments by their types in specially opened sub-accounts:

- “Acquisition of land plots”;

- “Purchase of natural resources”;

- “Construction of fixed assets”;

- “Acquisition of individual fixed assets”;

- “Acquisition of intangible assets”;

- “Transfer of young animals to the main herd”;

- “Acquisition of adult animals”;

Carrying out research, development and technological work (R&D), etc.

Subaccount 08-1 “Acquisition of land plots” takes into account the costs of acquiring land plots into the ownership of the organization;

On subaccount 08-2 “Purchase of environmental management objects” - costs for the acquisition of environmental management objects into the ownership of the organization;

On subaccount 08-3 “Construction of fixed assets” - costs for the construction of buildings and structures, installation of equipment, the cost of equipment transferred for installation and other expenses provided for by estimates, financial estimates and title lists for capital construction (regardless of whether this is carried out construction by contract or economic method);

On subaccount 08-4 “Purchase of individual fixed assets” - costs for the acquisition of equipment, machinery, tools, inventory and other fixed assets that do not require installation;

On subaccount 08-5 “Acquisition of intangible assets” - costs for the acquisition of intangible assets;

On subaccount 08-6 “Transfer of young animals to the main herd” - the costs of raising young productive and working livestock transferred to the main herd;

On subaccount 08-7 “Purchase of adult animals” - the cost of adult productive and working livestock purchased for the main herd or received free of charge, including the costs of its delivery;

On subaccount 08-8 “Performance of research, development and technological work” - the costs of performing these works.

The debit of account 08 “Investments in non-current assets” reflects the actual costs of construction and acquisition of relevant assets, as well as the costs of forming the main herd.

The generated initial cost of fixed assets, intangible and other assets accepted for operation and registered in the prescribed manner is written off from account 08 to the debit of accounts 01 “Fixed Assets”, 03 “Income Investments in Tangible Assets”, 04 “Intangible Assets”, etc. Costs for completed operations of forming the main herd are written off from account 08 to the debit of account 01 “Fixed assets”.

The balance on account 08 reflects the amount of capital investments of the organization in unfinished construction and the acquisition of fixed assets and intangible assets, as well as the amount of unfinished costs for the formation of the main herd. Since January 1, 2000, unfinished capital investments include real estate that has not passed state registration.

Analytical accounting for account 08 is carried out for each object under construction or acquired, as well as for types of animals.

For costs associated with the construction and acquisition of fixed assets, the construction of analytical accounting should provide the ability to obtain data on the costs of construction work and reconstruction, drilling work, installation of equipment, equipment requiring installation, equipment not requiring installation, as well as tools and equipment provided for in estimates for capital construction, design and survey work, and other costs of capital investments.

For analytical accounting of costs by type and composition of capital investments, the following statements are used:

No. 18 - for accounting for costs of unfinished, undelivered work, costs of the reporting period and from the beginning of the year, as well as written-off amounts for objects put into operation;

No. 18-1 - to account for costs that make up the initial cost of commissioned objects by their types.

1.3 Accounting for costs of construction of facilities.

practice report

4. Accounting and analysis of long-term investments and sources of their financing

The methodological basis for accounting of fixed assets is:

Accounting Regulations “Accounting for Fixed Assets” PBU 6/01;

Guidelines for accounting of fixed assets.

For accounting purposes, assets are recognized as fixed assets if the following conditions are simultaneously met:

The object is intended for use in the production of products, when performing work, providing services, for management needs, or for provision for a fee for temporary possession and use or for temporary use;

The facility is intended for long-term use, that is, for a period greater than 12 months, or the normal operating cycle if greater than 12 months;

The object must not be intended for sale;

The object is capable of bringing economic benefits (income) to the organization in the future.

Low-value assets (costing no more than 20,000 rubles per unit), in respect of which the above conditions are met, may be reflected in accounting and reporting as part of:

Fixed assets;

Material and production inventories (MPI).

This means that the organization independently decides whether to account for these objects as part of fixed assets (in accounts 01 “Fixed Assets”, 03 “Income Investments in Material Assets”) or as part of inventories (in account 10 “Materials”). The accounting policy of Prazdnik Plus LLC stipulates that items with a useful life of more than 12 months, but with a value on the date of acceptance for accounting of no more than 10,000 rubles, are taken into account in a separate subaccount of account 10 “Materials” and are written off in full as they are released into operation without capitalization into fixed assets.

The period during which fixed assets generate income for an organization is considered to be its useful life. This is the base figure for calculating depreciation. Useful lives are established for accounting purposes in accordance with PBU 6/01.

Fixed assets include buildings, structures, working power machines, equipment, measuring instruments, transmission devices, vehicles, as well as working and productive breeding livestock, as well as capital investments in leased property, in radical improvement of land (melioration), etc. .

The unit of accounting for fixed assets is an inventory item. To organize accounting and control the safety of fixed assets, each inventory item, when accepted for accounting, is assigned an inventory number. The inventory number assigned to an object of fixed assets is retained by it for the entire useful life of this object in the organization. If an item of fixed assets is written off from accounting, then its inventory number is not assigned to newly received fixed assets for five years.

At Prazdnik Plus LLC, the classification of fixed assets involves grouping them according to the following criteria.

Based on their natural composition, fixed assets are divided into the following groups and subgroups.

cars and equipment

Vehicles

Tools, production and household equipment

Depending on the degree of use, all fixed assets of the company are in operation. Based on ownership, fixed assets are divided into the following groups:

Own;

Rented;

The following fixed assets are allocated according to their intended purpose:

Production - use is aimed at systematically generating profit as the main goal of economic activity, that is, they are used in the process of production.

The accountant of Prazdnik Plus LLC keeps separate records of production and non-production fixed assets, since there are differences in how they are reflected in accounting and taxation. The company's balance sheet includes the following fixed assets: plasma cutting machine APR-150KM, sheet bending rollers IB-2219№34, compressor RVK 37-7.5, sheet bending machine ZS-15/1300, screw-cutting lathes, forklift, thermal cutting machine "Crystal-2.5", computers, monitors, VAZ car, crane beam, radial drilling machine, etc.

Fixed assets are accepted for accounting at their original cost, which consists of the actual costs associated with the acquisition, construction and production, with the exception of VAT and other refundable taxes (except for cases provided for by the legislation of the Russian Federation). The source for the acquisition of fixed assets is capital investments. Capital investments are a set of costs for the organization's long-term investments related to the acquisition, construction, reconstruction and modernization of fixed assets. All information about the receipt of fixed assets in the organization is first reflected in account 08. Account 08 is active, the balance is debit, shows the amount of investments in construction in progress, unfinished transactions for the acquisition of fixed assets and other non-current assets. The debit of account 08 reflects the amount of actual costs for the acquisition of fixed assets, construction (creation), included in the initial cost. Analytical accounting for account 08 is carried out for costs associated with the acquisition or construction of fixed assets (separately for each object). The generated initial cost of fixed assets, registered in the prescribed manner, is written off from the credit of account 08 to the debit of account 01. In this case, the following entry is made:

D-t 01 K-t 08-3 (08-4) - registration of a fixed asset at its original cost is reflected.

Analytical accounting for account 01 is carried out separately for each inventory item of fixed assets.

When fixed assets are received by Prazdnik Plus LLC, an act of acceptance and transfer of fixed assets is drawn up (Form N OS-1). The acts are signed by the manager and chief accountant. After signing, the acceptance certificates are transferred to the accounting department along with all technical documentation; they are the basis for registering a fixed asset and putting it into operation. Data from acts of acceptance and transfer of fixed assets are entered into the fixed asset inventory cards of forms OS-6, OS-6a, OS-6b. The inventory card is the main analytical register for accounting for fixed assets. A card is drawn up for each fixed asset item. The inventory card contains information about the internal movement, repair, modernization of a fixed asset item, etc., and when it is disposed of, the reasons for disposal, the date of deregistration, the amount of accrued depreciation, and the numbers of acts on the write-off of fixed assets. The technical characteristics of the object are indicated on the back of the card. Cards are compiled in one copy and stored in the accounting department. Analytical data for account No. 01 “Fixed Assets” is reflected in the inventory book, calculated for records for 5 years.

In accounting, depreciation is the process of monthly transferring part of the cost of a fixed asset to the costs of the current period. In other words, the cost of fixed assets is repaid through depreciation.

Fixed assets are depreciated over the useful life, which the organization determines when accepting the fixed asset item for accounting. Depreciation is charged on those fixed assets that belong to the organization by right of ownership.

Depreciation begins on the 1st day of the month following the month the fixed asset object was put into operation and is carried out until the cost is fully repaid or until the object is written off from the register. In accordance with the accounting policy, Prazdnik Plus LLC uses the linear method of calculating depreciation of fixed assets; the amount of depreciation is calculated based on the original cost and the depreciation rate, which is calculated based on the useful life. When calculating depreciation, a monthly accounting register “Statement of depreciation of fixed assets” is compiled. Information on depreciation is used when calculating the taxable base for property tax, to determine the residual value of fixed assets.

To account for accrued depreciation, account 02 “Depreciation of fixed assets” is intended; The account is passive, the credit balance shows the amount of accumulated depreciation.

If an item of fixed assets is used in the production of products (works, services), then the accrued depreciation is reflected in the debit of the production cost accounts and the credit of account 02:

D-t 20, 23, 25, 26, 97 K-t 02 - reflects depreciation on fixed assets used in the process of producing products, carrying out work and providing services.

Analytical accounting on account 02 is carried out for individual inventory items of fixed assets.

Fixed assets in some cases require repairs. Depending on the frequency and complexity, repairs can be current, medium and major.

Routine maintenance consists of daily maintenance of machinery and equipment in order to maintain them in working condition. The amount of work on current repairs is insignificant.

Average repairs in terms of complexity and frequency are between current and major. Its purpose is to extend the turnaround period until the next major overhaul.

Based on the method of carrying out repair work, a distinction is made between contract and economic methods.

Since repair work differs from each other in complexity and volume, in practice various options for accounting for repair costs are used (regardless of the method of implementation).

The first option is used in case of a small amount of repair work. All repair costs are charged directly to production cost accounts, since insignificant volumes of repair work will not lead to a sharp increase in the cost of production, that is, to a rise in price.

No modernization or reconstruction of fixed assets was carried out at Prazdnik Plus LLC. A commercial organization may revaluate fixed assets no more than once a year. The accounting policy of Prazdnik Plus LLC establishes that fixed assets are not revalued.

When conducting an audit of accounting data for the balance sheet item “Fixed Assets”, first of all, you should pay attention to: performing operations with fixed assets in accordance with the law; reflecting the results in the fixed asset accounts in the correct amount and in the correct reporting period; safety of fixed assets; records on fixed asset accounts, execution of orders and instructions. During the audit of fixed assets, the documentation of transactions with fixed assets and the formation of their initial cost were checked. As a result, the following violations were established:

Corrections were made in the primary documents that were not certified by the signatures of officials;

Not all fixed assets accepted for accounting have primary accounting documentation drawn up according to fixed assets forms;

The GAZelle car has a useful life of 36 months, the same as for a passenger car. According to the registration certificate of the technical equipment, this is a truck. In accordance with the OS Classification, a truck belongs to the fourth depreciation group with a depreciation period of more than five years up to seven years inclusive. Thus, the minimum possible useful life of the car is 61 months.

5. Accounting and features of the audit of intangible assets

According to the current regulations on accounting and financial reporting in the Russian Federation, intangible assets used in economic activities for a period exceeding 12 months and generating income. Intangible assets are reflected in accounting and reporting in the amount of costs of acquisition, production and costs of bringing them to a state in which they are suitable for use for the intended purposes. Moreover, in the case of investing intangible assets into the authorized capital, their value is determined by agreement of the parties, and if received free of charge - by expert means.

The value of intangible assets acquired by enterprises for a fee or created at the enterprise itself is reflected in the debit of account 04 “Intangible assets” in correspondence with account 08 “Capital investments”. In this case, analytical accounting is carried out by type of intangible assets.

There are no intangible assets at the enterprise Prazdnik Plus LLC.

6. Accounting for financial investments

LLC "Prazdnik Plus" has no financial investments. Let's consider the theory of accounting and auditing of financial investments.

In accordance with the provisions of Art. 209 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the owner of property has the right, at his own discretion, to take any actions in relation to the property belonging to him that do not contradict the law and do not violate the rights and interests of any persons protected by law, including alienating his property into the ownership of other persons, transferring it to them, while remaining the owner , the right to own, use and dispose of property, pledge property and encumber it in other ways, dispose of it in any other way. In connection with the noted circumstances, organizations have the right, when disposing of property in their ownership, to make financial investments.

Financial investments are assets that are used by an organization to generate additional income through investments in government securities, bonds, authorized (share) capitals of other organizations, etc.

According to PBU 19/02 “Accounting for Financial Investments”, financial investments may include:

State and municipal securities;

Securities of other organizations, including debt securities in which the date and cost of repayment are determined (bonds, bills);

Contributions to the authorized (share) capital of other organizations (including subsidiaries and dependent business companies);

Loans provided to other organizations;

Deposits in credit institutions;

Accounts receivable acquired on the basis of assignment of the right of claim, etc.

Assets that have a tangible form, such as fixed assets, inventories, as well as intangible assets, are not financial investments.

To accept assets for accounting as financial investments, the following conditions must be simultaneously met:

The presence of properly executed documents confirming the existence of the organization’s right to financial investments and to receive funds or other assets arising from this right. Such documents are agreements for the purchase and sale of securities, agreements of simple partnership (joint activity), agreements for the assignment of claims, loan agreements, bank deposit agreements, constituent agreements for the creation of organizations, extracts from registers, etc.;

Transition to the organization of financial risks associated with financial investments (risk of price changes, risk of debtor insolvency, liquidity risk, etc.);

The ability to bring economic benefits (income) to the organization in the future in the form of interest, dividends or an increase in their value (in the form of the difference between the sale (redemption) price of a financial investment and its purchase value, as a result of its exchange, use in repaying the organization’s obligations, an increase in the current market cost, etc.).

Account 58 “Financial investments” is intended for accounting of financial investments. To account for various types of financial investments, the following sub-accounts can be opened for account 58:

58-1 “Units and shares”;

58-2 “Debt securities”;

58-3 “Loans provided”;

58-4 “Deposits under a simple partnership agreement.”

To accept financial investments for accounting, it is necessary that their presence is confirmed not only by a set of legal documents. In addition to them, it is mandatory to register such investments with primary accounting documents confirming the transfer of property or property rights by the organization and the receipt by the other party of assets accounted for as financial investments (acts of capitalization of securities or other documents in forms developed by the organization and approved in the accounting policy, payment orders, acts of acceptance and transfer of fixed assets, intangible assets, cash receipts, advice on the posting of property by a participant in a simple partnership agreement, etc.).

At the same time, civil legislation does not prohibit providing funds in the form of a loan on an interest-free basis. This condition must be enshrined in the contract. Then the provided interest-free loans should not be recognized as financial investments, despite the need to reflect them on the account. 58 “Financial investments”. Accounting for such loans should be organized separately in the analytical accounting system.

The accounting unit for financial investments is chosen by the organization independently to ensure the formation of complete and reliable information about investments, as well as the organization of proper control over their availability and movement. Depending on the nature of financial investments, the order of their acquisition and use, a unit of financial investments can be a series, batch or other homogeneous set of financial investments.

The organization maintains analytical accounting of financial investments in such a way as to provide information on the accounting units of financial investments and the organizations in which these investments were made (issuers of securities, other organizations in which the organization is a participant, borrowing organizations, etc.).

An organization can generate in analytical accounting additional information about the organization’s financial investments, including by their groups (types). Thus, in this section of the organization’s accounting policy, it is necessary to reflect what information will be reflected in the organization’s analytical accounting for securities accepted for accounting. To do this, an organization can maintain an analytical accounting register such as the Securities Accounting Book.

Financial investments are accepted for accounting at their original cost.

The initial cost of financial investments acquired for a fee is the amount of the organization's actual costs for their acquisition, excluding VAT and other refundable taxes (except for cases provided for by the legislation of the Russian Federation).

General and other similar expenses are not included in the actual costs of acquiring financial investments, except when they are directly related to the acquisition of financial investments.

Financial investments are divided into two groups: investments for which the current market value can be determined, and investments for which their current market value cannot be determined. The current market value of securities is understood as their market price, calculated in accordance with the established procedure by the organizer of trading on the securities market.

Availability and movement of investments in shares of joint-stock companies, authorized (share) capitals of other organizations, etc. are taken into account in account 58-1 “Units and shares”. When purchasing shares and interests, their initial cost is reflected in the debit of account 58-1 in correspondence with the account for accounting settlements with the seller.

If an organization acquires shares that are traded on the organized securities market (OSM), it makes monthly or quarterly adjustments to the valuation of these financial investments as of the previous reporting date at the current market value. The difference between the valuation of financial investments at the current market value as of the reporting date and the previous valuation of these financial investments is included in financial results (as part of other income or expenses). Other income and expenses of organizations are recorded on account 91 “Other income and expenses”, subaccount 1 “Other income” or 2 “Other expenses”, respectively.

When contributing to the authorized capital, the current market value is not determined. The initial cost of financial investments made as a contribution to the authorized (share) capital of an organization is recognized as their monetary value, agreed upon by the founders (participants) of the organization, unless otherwise provided by the legislation of the Russian Federation. At the same time, the organization forms a reserve for its depreciation for this financial investment. The amount of this reserve is reflected in account 59 “Provisions for impairment of financial investments” and is included in financial results.

Purchased bonds are accounted for in account 58-2 “Debt securities”. If an organization purchases interest-bearing bonds that are not traded on the securities market, then their initial cost is equal to their face value. When purchasing bonds, in this case, an entry is made in the accounting debit of the account. 58-2 and credit account. 51 "Current accounts". The redemption of bonds is reflected using the account. 91.

Account 58-3 “Loans provided” records loans provided by the organization at interest to legal entities and individuals. The provision of loans in cash is reflected in the debit of account 58-3 in correspondence with account 51 or other relevant accounts. The loan repayment is reflected in the debit of account 51 or other relevant accounts and the credit of account 58-3.

In the balance sheet, data on the amount of financial investments at the beginning and end of the reporting year are reflected in line 140 “Long-term financial investments” (line 250 “Short-term financial investments”).

Audit of financial investments

One of the stages of conducting an audit of the economic activities of an economic entity is the audit of financial investments, i.e. operations to divert funds in order to generate additional income. The main purpose of the audit is to express an opinion on the reliability of the financial (accounting) statements of the audited entity and the compliance of the accounting procedure with the legislation of the Russian Federation.

Obtaining sufficient evidence on the transactions being audited allows us to give them an independent assessment and identify violations and deviations from current regulations and accounting rules.

The information for checking financial investments is: the balance sheet for account 58 “Financial investments”, financial statements, an order on the organization’s accounting policy, primary documents confirming transactions with financial investments.

Before starting an audit, the auditor must draw up a plan and program for auditing financial investments.

An audit of financial investments includes the following stages:

Audit of primary documents confirming financial investment transactions;

Audit of the organization's accounting records in the journal of business transactions;

Audit of the correct reflection of the results of transactions with financial investments in the financial (accounting) statements of the organization.

The results of the audit are reflected in the auditor's report.

Sources of information for checking the accounting of financial investments can be divided into several groups:

1. Primary accounting documents for accounting for financial investments, including:

Documents for the acceptance and transfer of contributions to the authorized capitals of other organizations;

Documents for acceptance and transfer of contributions to joint activities;

Certificates for the amounts of deposits made in other enterprises;

Documents for acceptance and transfer of securities;

Payment orders and bank statements;

Incoming and outgoing cash orders.

2. Documents establishing the obligations of the parties to transactions, including:

Constituent documents;

Extracts from the register of shareholders;

Extracts from the minutes of meetings of shareholders, founders of the board of directors, etc.;

Share certificates and other securities;

Loan agreements;

Agreements on joint activities (simple partnership agreements).

3. Accounting registers, including the General Ledger, order journals, statements, machine diagrams (in the case of using computer technology) for accounting accounts 58 “Financial Investments”, 59 “Reserves for Impairment of Financial Investments”, as well as 55 “Special Accounts” in banks”, 91 “Other income and expenses”, etc.

The composition of accounting registers is determined by the form of accounting (journal-order, memorial-order, etc.), as well as the status of the economic entity (for example, a small enterprise).

4. Forms of accounting documentation for inventory:

Order on the creation of an inventory commission;

Statement of inventory results;

Inventory lists of securities, strict reporting forms, etc.

5. Others. Book of securities accounting.

Financial investments must be divided into long-term and short-term (depending on the period of return of funds diverted into investments, the time of redemption of securities or the intention to receive income on them), as well as debt and equity (based on the nature of the financial relations involved). This facilitates the audit and allows, based on its results, a differentiated assessment of the effectiveness of financial investments with different purposes and payback periods.

At the same time, the correctness of classifying certain financial investments as short-term and long-term will be checked.

When conducting an audit of investments in the authorized capital of organizations, auditors must carry out the following activities:

1. Check into the authorized capitals of which organizations and for what purpose financial investments were made. In this case, such primary documents as extracts from protocols, accounting registers, and constituent documents of the organization are used.

2. Check the form in which financial investments were made: cash; securities; fixed assets; materials; intangible assets; products (goods, works, services); other. The audit is carried out on the basis of extracts from protocols, accounting registers, constituent documents, orders, bank statements, cash orders, invoices for the release of material assets, and other primary documents.

3. Find out how the value of financial investments made in non-monetary form was assessed. The audit is carried out on the basis of assessment methods, minutes of meetings of founders, minutes of approvals for deposits.

4. Determine in what form the organization received (plans to receive) income: cash (dividends, interest), securities, fixed assets, materials, intangible assets, products (work, services), in the form of an increase in the share in the authorized capital, etc. .d. The verification is carried out on the basis of extracts from the protocols.

5. Find out when the organization plans to receive income: quarterly, annually, etc. The audit is carried out on the basis of extracts from the protocols.

6. Check income calculations using bank statements, cash receipt orders, invoices, and acts.

7. Check the reporting of financial investments in the authorized capitals of other organizations using reporting forms.

When conducting an audit of financial investments in joint activities, the auditor must carry out the following activities:

1. Specify for what period the investments were made: more than 12 months, up to 12 months. In this case, such primary documents as agreements on joint activities (simple partnership agreements) are used.

2. Check in what form investments were made in joint activities: in cash; securities; fixed assets; materials; intangible assets; products (goods, works, services); other. The audit is carried out on the basis of agreements on joint activities (simple partnership agreements), as well as on the basis of accounting registers.

3. Determine what documents confirm the receipt of the contribution to the joint activity: advice notes, invoices, receipts for receipt orders, etc. The audit is carried out on the basis of primary documents.

4. Check how the value of financial investments made in non-monetary form is assessed. The audit is carried out on the basis of the assessment methodology provided for by the accounting policy.

5. Determine in what form the organization received (plans to receive) income: cash (dividends, interest), securities, fixed assets, materials, intangible assets, products (work, services), in the form of an increase in the share in the authorized capital, etc. .d. The verification is carried out on the basis of agreements on joint activities (simple partnership agreements).

6. Find out how the profit received as a result of joint activities is distributed. The verification is carried out on the basis of agreements on joint activities (simple partnership agreements).

7. Find out when the organization plans to receive income from joint activities: monthly, quarterly, annually, etc. The verification is carried out on the basis of agreements on joint activities (simple partnership agreements).

8. Check whether the transferred property is returned upon termination of the joint activity agreement (simple partnership agreement). The verification is carried out on the basis of agreements on joint activities (simple partnership agreements).

9. Find out what is the procedure for covering losses from joint activities. The verification is carried out on the basis of agreements on joint activities (simple partnership agreements).

10. Check the reporting of financial investments in joint activities using reporting forms.

When conducting an audit of investments in loans provided to other economic entities for a period of up to 12 months, it is necessary to carry out the following activities:

1. Check in what form the loans were issued: in cash; securities; fixed assets; materials; intangible assets; products (goods, works, services); other. The audit is carried out on the basis of loan agreements, accounting registers, bank statements, cash receipts, invoices and other primary documents.

2. Find out how the value of loans issued in non-monetary form was assessed. The audit is carried out on the basis of assessment methods and loan agreements.

3. Determine in what form the organization received (plans to receive) income: cash (dividends, interest), securities, fixed assets, materials, intangible assets, products (work, services), increase in share in the authorized capital, etc. The verification is carried out on the basis of loan agreements.

4. Check the reporting of investments in loans provided to other economic entities for a period of up to 12 months using reporting forms.

7. Accounting, analysis and audit of inventories

Inventories are part of the property:

A) used in the production of products, performance of work and provision of services intended for sale (raw materials and basic materials, purchased semi-finished products, etc.);

B) intended for sale (finished products and goods);

C) used for the management needs of the organization (auxiliary materials, fuel, spare parts, etc.).

The cost of materials consumed affects the cost of goods sold, financial results and the tax base. Production costs are relatively uniformly affected by the method of valuing materials at average cost, which is used by the company under study, Prazdnik Plus LLC.

The enterprise uses accounts 10 “materials” with various subaccounts to account for current assets.

Raw materials, main and auxiliary materials, fuel, spare parts and other material resources are reflected in accounting and reporting at their actual cost.

When capitalizing assets at purchase prices and reflecting them on accounts 10 “Materials”, 41 “Goods”, transportation and procurement costs are collected separately as a debit to the subaccounts for accounting for material assets. At the same time, when valuables are written off from accounting (for example, to production), the corresponding percentage of transportation and procurement costs is also written off (this operation is reflected in accounting at the end of the reporting period).

VAT on acquired material assets is recorded as a debit to account 19 in the corresponding subaccount. The cost of material assets. Payments for which have been made, but are not capitalized in the reporting period, as well as the amount of tax on them, are taken into account in the calculation of VAT for the month in which they are due.

The receipt of materials is documented by a receipt order.

The write-off of materials is carried out through a requirement for the release of material assets in the established form. The acquisition of material assets is reflected in the accounting entries:

D 10 “Materials”

D 19 “VAT on acquired values”

K 60 “settlements with suppliers and contractors” (or 71 “Settlements with accountable persons”.

The write-off of material assets is recorded as follows:

D 44 “Sales expenses”

K10 “Materials” for the amount of the cost of consumed material assets.

It should be noted that when in the primary accounting documents (receipt cash orders, invoices, acts, etc.) the VAT amount is not highlighted as a separate line or the invoice is not issued or drawn up improperly, the calculation of the value added tax no cost is made.

The posting of goods is documented using the following transactions:

Dt 41 “Goods” - for the cost of the goods received;

Dt 19 “VAT on purchased valuables” - for the amount of VAT related to the goods received.

Kt 60 “Settlements with suppliers and contractors” - for the cost of goods including VAT indicated in the invoice.

The safety of raw materials and supplies depends on storage conditions, so control is to check the condition of the warehouse facilities at the enterprise. The auditor finds out the number and location of warehouse premises, their capacity, specialization, availability of conditions for storing valuables, provision of fire and security alarms, weighing equipment, containers, etc. After this, it is advisable to conduct testing using a special questionnaire and determine whether a full or partial inventory of inventories, is it necessary to carry out a complete documentary check of individual directions of movement of values ​​or can we limit ourselves to a random check. Conclusions are drawn based on the study of internal control and accounting systems at the enterprise using a sample questionnaire for testing the state of internal control and the material resource accounting system at the enterprise.

Fixed assets are part of the property used as means of labor in the production of products for a period exceeding 12 months.

Operations for the receipt of fixed assets are their commissioning as a result of capital investments, gratuitous receipt of fixed assets, rent, leasing, internal movement.

Incoming fixed assets to ProAgro LLC are documented in one copy with an act of acceptance and transfer of fixed assets. It indicates the name of the object, year, brief description of the object, initial cost, inventory number assigned to the object, place of use of the object and other information. After registration, this act is transferred to the accounting department of the organization.

Operations for writing off fixed assets at ProAgro LLC are formalized by an act on writing off fixed assets, which is drawn up by the commission in two copies (one is transferred to the accounting department, the second remains with the employee responsible for the safety of the object).

Synthetic accounting of the presence and movement of fixed assets in an organization is carried out on accounts 01 “Fixed assets”, 02 “Depreciation of fixed assets”, 91 “Other income and expenses”.

The cost of fixed assets received as a contribution to the authorized capital is recorded in accounting entries: D 08 - K 75; D 01 - K 08.

Fixed assets received free of charge are reflected by posting: D 08 - K 98/2. The cost of gratuitously received fixed assets, as depreciation is calculated on them, is written off from subaccount 98/2 “Gratuitous receipts” to the credit of account 91 “Other income and expenses.”

When disposal of fixed assets due to sale, due to dilapidation, obsolescence, gratuitous transfer, the residual value of the object is written off from account 01 "Fixed assets" to the debit of account 91 "Other income and expenses", in addition, the debit of account 91 reflects all expenses associated with the disposal of fixed assets, and for a loan - all receipts associated with the disposal of fixed assets (proceeds from the sale of objects).

In accordance with PBU 6/01, the cost of fixed assets is repaid through depreciation.

At ProAgro LLC, depreciation is calculated from the first day of the next month after commissioning. Depreciation of fixed assets is calculated using the straight-line method.

To account for depreciation at the enterprise, account 02 “Depreciation of fixed assets” is used.

The accrued amount of depreciation on own fixed assets for production purposes is reflected in the debit of the accounts of production and distribution costs (23,25,26, etc.) and the credit of account 02.

When disposing of own fixed assets, the amount of depreciation on them is written off to the debit of account 02 from the credit of account 01.

In case of shortage and damage to fixed assets, their residual value is written off from the credit of account 01 “Fixed assets” to the debit of account 94 “shortages and losses from damage to valuables”, and the depreciation amount is written off from the credit of account 01 to the debit of account 02 “Depreciation of fixed assets”. When specific culprits are identified, missing or damaged fixed assets are assessed at sales prices and written off from the credit of account 94 to the debit of account 73 “Settlements with personnel for other operations.” The difference between the market price and the residual value of fixed assets is reflected in the debit of account 94 and the credit of account 98 “Deferred income”. As the debtor repays the debt, the corresponding part is written off from account 98 to the credit of account 91 “Other income and expenses”. If the culprits are not identified, then the missing and damaged fixed assets are written off from organizations from the credit of account 94 to financial results (account 91).

Having studied the accounting of fixed assets in ProAgro LLC, we can conclude that it complies with PBU 6/01.

At ProAgro LLC, actual expenses associated with carrying out and paying for repairs of fixed assets are charged directly to the accounts of production and circulation costs from the credit account of the corresponding material, cash and settlement accounts (accounts 10 “Materials”, 70 “Settlements with personnel for wages", etc.). The posting of materials received during the repair of fixed assets is carried out by debiting the corresponding material accounts (10) and crediting account 23 “Auxiliary production”.

The main source of analysis of fixed assets is financial reporting: Form No. 1 “Balance Sheet” and Form No. 5 “Appendices to the Balance Sheet”.

Let's consider the state of fixed assets for ProAgro LLC for 2010 compared to 2009 in Table 1.

Table 1

Indicators of the condition of fixed assets for ProAgro LLC for 2010 compared to 2009. (amount - thousand rubles)

Indicators			Deviations
Amount of fixed assets at the beginning of the year A) Initial cost B) Amount of depreciation B) Residual value			-1500 -1465
Amount of disposed fixed assets
Amount of purchased fixed assets
Wear rate
Usability factor
Renewal factor
Attrition rate

The data in Table 1 shows that fixed assets at the end of the year amounted to an initial cost of 0 thousand rubles, which is less than at the beginning of the year by 1500 thousand rubles. or 100%.

The residual value at the end of the year was 0 thousand rubles; during the year it decreased by 35 thousand rubles. This influenced the decrease in the wear rate and the decrease in their serviceability rate, i.e. to deterioration of the condition of fixed assets.

This is also indicated by the calculations of these coefficients. The depreciation rate of fixed assets at the beginning of the year was 2.33%; during the year it decreased by 2.33% and amounted to 0%. Accordingly, the suitability coefficient decreased (by 97.67%).

One of the ways to reduce the wear rate, i.e. improving the condition of fixed assets is the timely repair and acquisition of new fixed assets, their modernization, as well as the write-off of morally and physically obsolete machinery and equipment.

In the reporting year, ProAgro LLC wrote off fixed assets in the amount of 1,500 thousand rubles, and acquired them in the amount of 0 thousand rubles. Thus, the retirement rate was 100%, i.e. 100% of fixed assets were written off during the reporting period. The update rate was 0%.

Let's consider the structure of fixed assets of ProAgro LLC at the beginning and end of 2010 (Table 2).

Table 3

Structure of fixed assets of ProAgro LLC at the beginning and end of 2010 (amount - thousand rubles)

Indicators	For the beginning of the year	At the end of the year	Deviations
Facilities and transmission devices
cars and equipment
Vehicles
Industrial and household equipment
Draft livestock
Productive livestock
Perennial plantings
Other types of fixed assets

The data in Table 2 shows that in the total amount of fixed assets, the entire share is occupied by vehicles. Their share at the beginning of the year was 100%, and at the end - 0%, i.e. dropped out - 100%.

Let us calculate the assessment of the efficiency of use of fixed assets of ProAgro LLC for 2010 compared to last year (Table 3).

As the data in Table 4 shows, the capital productivity of fixed assets increased by 5.9 rubles compared to last year and amounted to 67.4 rubles, and the capital return decreased by 64.4% and amounted to 2.1%.

As a result of increasing the efficiency of using fixed assets, ProAgro LLC increased the volume of production and sales of products by 4,425 thousand rubles. (750*5.9).

Table 3

Indicators of the efficiency of use of fixed assets of ProAgro LLC for 2010 compared to last year

The efficiency of using fixed assets is influenced by various factors. These include:

volume of products produced;

average annual amount of fixed assets;

labor productivity of production workers;

productivity of fixed assets;

efficiency of use of certain types of fixed assets.

Let's calculate the impact of changes in revenue from product sales and the average annual cost of fixed assets on capital productivity for ProAgro LLC for 2010 compared to last year (Table 5).

The data in Table 5 shows that capital productivity for the reporting period increased by 5 rubles. 90 kopecks. This deviation was influenced by the following factor:

The growth in production and sales of products increased capital productivity by 5 rubles. 90 kop..

Table 5

Indicators of the impact of changes in revenue from product sales and the average annual cost of fixed assets on capital productivity for ProAgro LLC for 2010 compared to last year.

First of all, it is recommended to begin the analysis with an assessment of the dynamics of the volume and structure of capital investments at estimated prices in the main areas of reproduction of fixed assets of projects “A” and “B”. Data for this assessment are in Tables 2 and 3.

Table 2 - Dynamics of the volume and structure of capital investments in fixed assets (F) of project “A”

Direction of investment	1st half of the year	2nd half	Dynamics rate, %
	Specific gravity, %	Investment volume, thousand rubles.	Specific gravity, %
Replacing the OF
Reconstruction of the PF
Modernization of the PF
New construction
Other capital investments
Total capital investments

Based on the analysis of the data in Table 2, we conclude that the enterprise has reduced the total volume of capital investments by 412 thousand rubles. (9.8%). There is also a decrease in investment in new construction by 29.69%. The smallest increase is observed in the acquisition and installation of fixed assets - 28.92%. The largest increase was in investments in the modernization of fixed assets - 36.36%.

Table 3 - Dynamics of the volume and structure of capital investments in fixed assets (F) of project “B”

Direction of investment	1st half of the year	2nd half	Growth rate, %
Investment volume, thousand rubles.	Specific gravity, %	Investment volume, thousand rubles.	Specific gravity, %
Replacing the OF
Reconstruction of the PF
Modernization of the PF
New construction
Purchase and installation of PF required by law
Other capital investments
Total capital investments

The analysis of the dynamics of the volume and structure of capital investments in fixed assets of Project “B” showed that when using this project, the total volume of capital investments at the enterprise will increase by 900 thousand rubles. or by 25.35%. But there will be a slight decrease in investment in new construction, by only 200 rubles. or by 22.22%., and for other indicators there will be a positive trend - an increase.

The next step should be to analyze the dynamics of funds, in terms of composition and structure, used to finance capital investments also for two projects. The main sources of financing are own funds (depreciation of intangible assets and fixed assets, net profit) and borrowed funds (bank loans, targeted financing from the budget, borrowed funds from other enterprises). To characterize the dynamics of the composition and structure of sources of financing capital investments, Table 4 for project “A” and Table 5 for project “B” are presented.

Table 4 - Dynamics of the composition and structure of sources of financing for project “A”

Indicators			Change (+,-)	Rates of growth, %
	in % of total		in % of total		by structure
Including:
Depreciation
Borrowed funds
Including:
bank loans
Borrowed funds of enterprises
Total long-term investments

As can be seen from Table 3, sources of financing long-term investments decreased by 552 thousand rubles compared to last year. This happened mainly due to a decrease in sources of borrowed funds by 915 thousand rubles, or 63.4%, including bank loans - by 1000 rubles, or 60%. Raising funds from others in the reporting year

enterprises increased the amount of borrowed funds by 85 thousand rubles. Own funds used to finance long-term investments increased by 363 thousand rubles compared to the previous year. This was caused by an increase in the amount of profit used to finance investments by 163 thousand rubles, or 34.2%. Another positive aspect is the change in the structure of sources of long-term investment towards an increase in the share of own funds by 11.8% while simultaneously reducing the share of raised funds. At the end of the period, more than 55.5% of the volume of long-term investment was the enterprise’s own funds.

Table 5 - Dynamics of the composition and structure of sources of financing for Project “B”

Indicators	Funds used at the beginning of the period (year)	Funds used at the end of the period (year)	Change (+,-)	Rates of growth, %
	in % of total		in % of total		by structure
Own funds of the enterprise
Including:
Depreciation
Net profit used to finance investments
Borrowed funds
Including:
bank loans
Borrowed funds of enterprises
Total long-term investments

An analysis of the data in Table 5 showed that sources of financing long-term investments increased by 200 thousand rubles, or 5.13%, compared to the previous year. This happened mainly due to an increase in sources of borrowed funds by 28 thousand rubles, or 5.9%, including bank loans - by 50 thousand rubles. (12.5%). The enterprise's own funds aimed at financing long-term investments increased by 172 thousand rubles compared to the previous year. (5%). This was caused by an increase in the amount of profit used to finance investments by 164 thousand rubles, or 5.5%. At the end of the year, 87.8% of the volume of long-term investment was the company’s own funds.

Table 6 - Comparative analysis of the structure of sources of financing for investment projects

The calculations showed that the loan amount for project “A” is 3113 thousand rubles more than the same amount for project “B”. It follows that Project A uses much more debt than Project B, making the latter the most attractive. For project “A” the amount of overpayment on the loan is greater than for project “B” by 529.21 thousand rubles, which makes project “B” again the most attractive.

A continuation of assessing the dynamics of the composition and structure of sources of financing capital investments is to determine the influence of factors on the amount of investment. An assessment of the influence of factors on changes in the value of sources of financing for investment projects “A” and “B” can be carried out using the calculations presented in tables 7 and 8.

Table 7 - Analysis of factors influencing the amount of sources of financing investments for project “A”

Indicators	Last year	Reporting year	Absolute deviation, (+,-)	Dynamics rate, %
	Net profit, thousand rubles.
	Accumulation level, coefficient (item 4/item 3)

Table 8 - Calculation of the influence of factors on the value of sources of financing long-term investments for project “B”

Indicators	Last year	Reporting year	Absolute deviation, (+,-)	Dynamics rate, %
	Volume of sales of products (works, services), thousand rubles.
	Profit before tax, thousand rubles.
	Net profit, thousand rubles.
	Profit allocated to the savings fund to finance long-term investments, thousand rubles.
	Depreciation of fixed assets, thousand rubles.
	Own sources of financing long-term investments, thousand rubles. (item 4+item 5)
	Amount of sources of financing for long-term investments, thousand rubles.
	Profitability of products (works, services), % (item 2/item 1)
	Level of net profit of the enterprise, % (item 3/item 2)
	Accumulation level, %(item 4/item 3)
	Share of profit from own sources, % (item 4/item 6)
	Share of own funds in total financing, % (item 6/item 7)

The calculations of indicators carried out in tables 7 and 8 make it possible, using the method of chain substitutions, to make an economic calculation of the influence of individual factors on the amount of sources of financing long-term investments - table 9 for project “A” and table 10 for project “B”.

Table 9 - Calculation of the influence of factors on the value of sources of financing long-term investments for project “A”

	Name of factors	Last year	Reporting year	Absolute deviation
	Change in savings level
	Change in the level of net profit of the enterprise

After analyzing the data from tables 7 and 9, the following results were summed up: The decrease in the amount of sources of financing long-term investments for project “A” was most influenced by the decrease in the level of accumulation of the enterprise. The amount of investment financing sources under the influence of this factor decreased by 562.2 thousand rubles; Under the influence of an increase in the share of borrowed funds, the amount of financing sources increased by 355.7 thousand rubles. The decrease in the volume of sold products, works, services and the level of net profit led to a decrease in the amount of financing of capital investments by 133.4 thousand rubles, respectively. and 15.8 thousand rubles.

An increase in the level of profitability of products, works, services and a change in the structure of sources of own funds had a positive impact on the amount of financing of long-term investments. When the last indicator changed, the share of depreciation of fixed assets increased. An increase in the profitability of products (works, services) and an increase in the share of depreciation in sources of own funds led to an increase in sources of financing long-term investments by 227.4 thousand rubles, respectively. and 355.7 thousand rubles.

Table 10 - Calculation of the influence of factors on the value of sources of financing long-term investments for project “B”

	Name of factors	Last year	Reporting year	Absolute deviation	Influence on the amount of investment sources of individual factors, thousand rubles.
	Change in product sales volume
	Change in savings level
	Change in tax level
	Changes in product profitability levels
	Change in the share of profit from own sources
	Change in the share of own funds in total financing

The results of the analysis carried out in Tables 8 and 10 show that the increase in the amount of sources of financing for long-term investments in Project “B” was most influenced by the increase in the level of savings of enterprises. The amount of investment financing sources under the influence of this factor increased by 630 thousand rubles.

Under the influence of an increase in the share of borrowed funds, the amount of financing sources increased by 568 thousand rubles. The increase in the volume of products sold (work, services) and the level of net profit led to an increase in the amount of financing of capital investments by 113 thousand rubles, respectively. and 289 thousand rubles.

Also, an increase in the profitability of products (works, services) and a change in the structure of sources of own funds had a positive impact on the amount of financing of long-term investments. When the last indicator changed, there was an increase in the share of depreciation of fixed assets. An increase in the profitability of products (works, services) and an increase in the share of depreciation in sources of own funds led to an increase in sources of financing long-term investments by 47 thousand rubles, respectively. and 22 thousand rubles.

Long-term investments are the costs of creating, increasing the size, as well as acquiring non-current durable assets (over one year) that are not intended for sale.

Long-term financial investments in government securities, securities and authorized capitals of other organizations are not long-term investments. According to the Regulations on accounting for long-term investments, approved by order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated December 30, 1993, No. 160, long-term investments are associated with: the implementation of capital construction in the form of new construction, as well as reconstruction, expansion and technical re-equipment of existing organizations and non-production facilities;

Acquisition of buildings, structures, equipment, vehicles and other individual objects (or parts thereof) of fixed assets;

Acquisition of land plots and environmental management facilities; acquisition and creation of intangible assets (exclusive rights to intellectual property, means of individualization of goods (works, services)).

The main objectives of accounting for long-term investments are:

Timely, complete and reliable reflection of all expenses incurred during the construction of objects by their types and the objects taken into account;

Ensuring control over the progress of construction, commissioning of production facilities and fixed assets;

Correct determination and reflection of the inventory value of commissioned and acquired fixed assets, land plots, environmental management facilities and intangible assets;

Monitoring the availability and use of sources of financing for long-term investments. Accounting for long-term investments is kept on account 08 “Investments in non-current assets”. This account reflects investments by their types in specially opened sub-accounts:

08-1 “Acquisition of land”;

08-2 “Acquisition of natural resources”;

08-3 “Construction of fixed assets”;

08-4 “Acquisition of fixed assets”;

08-5 “Acquisition of intangible assets”;

08-6 “Transfer of young animals to the main herd”;

08-7 “Acquisition of adult animals”;

08-8 “Performing research, development and technological work”, etc.

The debit of account 08 “Investments in non-current assets” reflects the actual costs incurred for the construction (creation) and acquisition of the relevant assets, as well as the costs of forming the main herd.

The generated initial cost of fixed assets, intangible and other assets accepted for operation and registered in the prescribed manner is written off from account 08 “Investments in non-current assets” to the debit of accounts 01 “Fixed assets”, 03 “Income-generating investments in tangible assets”, 04 “Intangible assets”, etc.

Completed long-term investments are assessed based on the inventory value of completed construction projects and acquired individual types of fixed assets and other non-current assets.

The balance of account 08 “Investments in non-current assets” reflects the amount of capital investments of the organization in construction in progress, unfinished transactions for the acquisition of fixed assets and intangible assets, as well as the amount of unfinished costs for the formation of the main herd.

Unfinished long-term investments are reflected in the item “Construction in progress” in Section I “Non-current assets” of the balance sheet.

The organization of analytical accounting for account 08 “Investments in non-current assets” depends on the type of long-term investment. For costs associated with the construction and acquisition of fixed assets, analytical accounting is maintained for each fixed asset item under construction or acquisition. At the same time, the construction of analytical accounting should provide the ability to obtain data on the costs of: “construction work and reconstruction; drilling work; installation of equipment; equipment requiring installation; equipment not requiring installation, as well as tools and equipment provided for in estimates for capital construction; design and survey work; other capital investment costs.

For costs associated with the acquisition (creation) of intangible assets, analytical accounting is carried out for each intangible asset acquired or created by the organization itself.

Analytical accounting of the costs associated with the formation of the main herd is carried out by type of animal (cattle, pigs, sheep, horses, etc.). If an organization carries out research, development and technological work, then it organizes accounting by type of work performed, as well as by contracts (orders).