Acclimatization: what to do and how to avoid? Acclimatization and settlement of organisms Human acclimatization in different climatic zones.
Climate (Greek κλίμα (klimatos) - slope) is a long-term weather regime characteristic of a given area due to its geographical location. Weather is a set of values of meteorological elements and atmospheric phenomena observed at a given moment in time at a particular point in space. Weather refers to the current state of the atmosphere, as opposed to Climate, which refers to the average state of the atmosphere over a long period of time. If there is no clarification, then the term “Weather” refers to the weather on Earth. Weather phenomena occur in the troposphere (lower atmosphere) and in the hydrosphere.
There are periodic and non-periodic weather changes. Periodic weather changes depend on the daily and annual rotation of the Earth. Non-periodic ones are caused by the transfer of air masses. They disrupt the normal course of meteorological quantities (temperature, atmospheric pressure, air humidity, etc.). The discrepancy between the phase of periodic changes and the nature of non-periodic changes leads to the most dramatic changes in weather. ACCLIMATIZATION is the process of adaptation of the human body to new climatic and geographical conditions (mountainous areas, hot or cold climates, etc.). ACCLIMATIZATION is the active process of a person’s adaptation to work and life in new, unusual climate conditions. To a certain extent, A. is associated with hardening the body.
For athletes, A. can be important when traveling to training camps and competitions, held in areas with sharply different climatic conditions, which at first adversely affect the well-being and performance of athletes. A. is of particular importance in sports practice. in high mountain conditions, and above all adaptation to prolonged stay and muscle activity in conditions of low partial pressure of oxygen. Known A. is required for participation in sports competitions held at an altitude of more than 1400 - 1600 m above sea level, long-term A. is necessary for mountaineering. In the process of A., appropriate adaptive reactions of the body to new environmental conditions are developed. In particular, with A. at high altitude, an increase in the body's endurance to insufficient oxygen supply to tissues is accompanied by a number of changes in the functions of blood circulation, respiration, metabolism, etc.; An important role is played by the increase in red blood cells and hemoglobin, which increases the oxygen capacity of the blood. While staying in the mountains, the best results are obtained by the so-called. active A., i.e. A. in the process of physical. exercises. High-altitude alpinism is helped by sometimes training in a pressure chamber - a special hermetically sealed structure in which low or high air pressure can be artificially created.
Air temperature and humidity. Methodology for their assessment. Principles of standardization of environmental parameters. Maximum permissible values for indoor sports facilities and outdoor activities.
Air temperature- This is a constantly acting environmental factor on a person. The main source of heat on Earth is thermal radiation, as a result of which the soil heats up, which, in turn, heats the adjacent layers of air. Air temperature experiences daily and annual fluctuations. For example, the lowest daily indicator precedes sunrise or coincides with it in time, the highest is observed in the period from 13 to 15 hours. The main hygienic significance of air temperature is its effect on the heat exchange of the body with the environment: high temperature makes it difficult to transfer heat, low, on the contrary, increases it. Air temperature is a physical quantity that characterizes the state of thermodynamic equilibrium of a system. Basic units of measurement are degrees Celsius, Kelvin. These scales are related by the following ratio: t(in cels) = t(in kelv) – 273. Instruments for measuring air temperature: thermometer; thermograph – evaluates the dynamics of air temperature over a certain period of time; meteorometer is a complex instrument that fully displays all air data. The temperature in the gyms is 14-18 degrees. Outdoors 18-20 degrees (relative to humidity and air speed of 1.5 m/s). Air humidity. Along with other hygienic factors (temperature and air speed), air humidity has a powerful effect on the heat exchange between the body and the environment. Air humidity refers to the content of water vapor (g) in 1 m3 of air. Basic indicators of air humidity: absolute humidity - the absolute amount of water vapor present in 1 m3 of air at a specific time at a specific temperature. Maximum humidity is the amount of water vapor that ensures complete saturation of 1m3 of air with moisture at a specific air temperature. Relative humidity – the ratio of absolute air humidity to maximum (%); saturation deficit – the difference between maximum and absolute air humidity. Relative air humidity is of greatest hygienic importance: the lower it is, the less the air is saturated with water vapor and the more intensely sweat evaporates from the surface of the body, which enhances heat transfer. Normal relative humidity in indoor air is considered to be 30-60%. During physical work, this value should not exceed 30-40%, and at higher temperatures (+25) - 20-25%. Instruments for measuring air humidity: stationary psychrometer; hygrograph; aspiration psychrometer.
Under adaptation is understood as the process of adaptation of living organisms to certain conditions of existence, ensuring not only the normal functioning of the organism, but also the preservation of a high level of working capacity in new, including social, conditions of existence. Adaptive reactions developed in the process of evolutionary development, in addition to maintaining the basic constants of the body (isothermia, isothermia, isotonia, isoosmia, etc.), also carry out the restructuring of various functions of the body, thereby ensuring its adaptation to physical, emotional and other stress, to various fluctuations weather and climatic conditions.
Acclimatization is a special case of adaptation to a complex of external natural and climatic factors and is a complex socio-biological process that depends on natural and climatic, socio-economic, hygienic and psychological factors. Acclimatization reactions have a hereditary basis. They are formed from childhood and concern all regulatory and physiological systems of the body. The process of acclimatization is manifested by general and specific adaptation features specific to a particular climate. The general pattern of the acclimatization process is a phase change in the vital activity of the body. First phase (approximate) is associated with the “novelty” factor, in which, as a rule, general, psycho-emotional inhibition and a slight decrease in performance are noted. Second phase (increased reactivity) is characterized by the predominance of the excitation process, stimulation of the activity of the regulatory and physiological systems of the body, the predominance of the activity of the sympathetic department of the autonomic nervous system and adrenergic regulatory mechanisms that ensure the mobilization of the functional and metabolic reserves of the body. During this period of acclimatization, there is a decrease in the reliability of the functional systems of the body as a whole and, above all, systems that were previously damaged (functionally weakened). IN third phase acclimatization, the basic (universal) law of the beneficial result of action is realized, providing positive entropy (energy accumulation). During this period, the processes of internal inhibition are significantly deepened, cholinergic regulatory mechanisms are stimulated, rebuilding various physiological systems and specialized structures of the body to a more economical level of functioning. This creates the basis for increasing physiological stability, endurance and resistance of the body to various adverse influences of the external environment. During this phase, changes are observed not only in the most mobile “reactive” systems of the body, but also in the biochemical and biophysical properties of tissues, which makes it possible to preserve them for a longer period of time. At this phase, the development of the acclimatization process usually ends during a short stay in a new climate. With a longer stay in unusual climatic conditions, fourth phase - phase of completed or stable acclimatization. In this phase, adapted reactions at the tissue level are especially clearly manifested. The physiological functions of the body during this period generally differ little from those of the aborigines.
The specifics of the acclimatization process are determined by those factors that differ most from the constant conditions of human life. Acclimatization to a cold climate (taiga and tundra zone) is associated with a sharply cooling effect of temperature, humidity, wind in the winter season of the year, combined with the polar night (desynchrosis), UV deficiency, etc. Acclimatization to the temperate climate of middle latitudes usually does not affect the body a man of great difficulties. However, movement in this vast zone for every 10º in the latitudinal direction requires adaptation to the thermal and UV regime of the area. Movement in a longitudinal direction disrupts the usual rhythm of the daily periodicity.
Acclimatization to the hot climate of the subtropics and tropics - dry and humid zones - is associated with meteorological conditions of thermal discomfort (hyperthermia, stuffiness), with excess solar, including UV radiation. Acclimatization to a mountain climate is associated with the specifics of mountainous terrain, depending on altitudinal and climatic zonation. There are low-mountain areas (altitude 400-1000 m), mid-mountain areas (lower zone from 1000 to 1500 m and upper zone - from 1500 to 2000 m) and high mountain areas (above 2000 m above sea level). In mountainous areas, compared to the plains, there are more hours of sunshine (on average by 20-30%). In winter in the mountains, UV radiation is four times, and in summer twice as much, than on the plain.
The duration and specificity of the acclimatization process to any type of climate depend not only on external natural and climatic factors, but also on the individual characteristics of the human body - age, constitution, degree of hardening and fitness, on the nature and severity of the main and concomitant diseases. Return (reacclimatization) to familiar climatic conditions causes a number of adaptive reactions in the body, which in general terms differ little from acclimatization reactions, but they are less clearly expressed, quickly smooth out and fade away.
Climatopathic reactions . A sharp change in climate, especially in the elderly and children, as well as in those who have been asthenized by some acute or chronic disease, mainly in the initial stages of acclimatization, can cause a number of pathological, so-called climatopathological (climatopathic) reactions with a predominance of cerebral, cardiac, vegetative-vascular , arthrological and other symptom complex, depending on the individual characteristics of the body, the specifics of the psychosomatic disease, as well as the characteristics of the unusual climate. In these cases, climatopathic reactions occur either acutely (like “stress”) or gradually (like an adaptation disease). Extreme weather and climatic factors are stress stimuli that activate the sympathetic-adrenal, pituitary-adrenal system, causing, during the process of acclimatization, an increased release of various hormones, including glucocorticoids, which help increase the adaptive capabilities and general resistance of the body.
A number of people, when moving, especially in the winter season, to the harsh climatic conditions of high latitudes, often develop a complex of pathological reactions, manifested by disruption of the central nervous system, respiratory function, blood circulation, and thermal adaptation, which V.P. Kaznacheev defined as “polar stress syndrome” ”, and A.P. Avtsyn - as “polar hypoxia syndrome”. The development of reactions of this type is associated with the intense cooling properties of the air during the cold season.
The process of acclimatization to these conditions is aggravated by the increased intensity of electromagnetic oscillations of cosmic origin due to the proximity of the Earth's magnetic pole in these latitudes, as well as the high intensity of the electric field of the atmosphere. The specific conditions of the polar regions can provoke exacerbations of chronic diseases of the heart, lungs, joints, and nervous system, which in those areas are severe. Prevention of climatopathic reactions in people moving to these regions should include treatment of the underlying disease, as well as a set of means and measures aimed at increasing the general and specific resistance of the body (UV irradiation, fortification with vitamin A complex, group B.C. RR. intake so-called adaptogens (tincture of ginseng, eleutherococcus, “acclimatizin”, which is a mixture of eleutherococcus, lemongrass and yellow sugar).
Meteopathic reactions . The human body adapts relatively easily even to significant fluctuations in weather and meteorological conditions thanks to self-regulation mechanisms. For a healthy body, normal weather fluctuations are a training factor that supports the body's basic adaptive systems at an optimal level. However, some people still suffer from increased sensitivity to changes in weather and meteorological conditions. Increased meteosensitivity (meteolability) is more often observed in persons with defective, due to overwork, violations of work and rest, self-regulatory mechanisms.
Increased meteosensitivity (based on subjective characteristics) in patients with diseases of the cardiovascular system is stated in 30-50% of cases. The bulk of meteopathically sensitive individuals are between the ages of 40 and 65 years. Residents of suburban areas have increased meteosensitivity on average in 28%, and among city dwellers - in 64.5% of cases.
A number of signs of meteopathic reactions have been identified, distinguishing them from exacerbation reactions caused by other reasons. These include: a) simultaneous and massive occurrence of pathological reactions in patients with the same type of diseases in adverse weather conditions; b) short-term deterioration in the condition of patients, synchronous with weather changes; c) relative stereotypicality of repeated violations in the same patient in a similar weather situation.
Climate is the average state of meteorological conditions characteristic of a given area over many years of observations. Meteorological conditions include temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, precipitation, cloudiness, solar radiation, wind direction and strength, and the electrical state of the atmosphere.
Depending on the average annual temperature and geographical location of the area on Earth, there are 7 main climatic zones: tropical, hot, warm, temperate, cold, severe and polar.
When hygienic standardization is based on the average daily temperatures in January and July, the following are distinguished: cold, moderate and warm climatic regions.
Currently, in medicine they use the division of climate into gentle and irritating.
A gentle climate includes a warm climate with small fluctuations in temperature and other meteorological factors over long periods of time. Such a climate places minimal demands on the body's adaptive capabilities. Examples of such a climate are the forest climate of the middle zone, the southern coast of Crimea.
An irritating climate is characterized by significant fluctuations in meteorological conditions, both during the day and throughout the year. As a result, increased demands are placed on adaptive physiological mechanisms. Examples of such climates are the territories of the Far North, highlands, desert and semi-desert climates.
The body has certain physiological mechanisms of adaptation to new climatic conditions over a more or less long period of time. This ability is called acclimatization.
Currently, acclimatization is considered as a socio-biological process of active adaptation of the body to new climatic conditions. Acclimatization to a hot climate is manifested by the following reactions of the body: a decrease in heart rate, a decrease in blood pressure by 15-25 mm Hg. st; decreased breathing rate; intense and uniform sweating; a decrease in body temperature and basal metabolic rate by 10-15%. When the body acclimatizes to low temperatures, metabolism and heat production increase, the volume of circulating blood increases, and skin temperature is restored faster.
Acclimatization takes place in 3 stages:
− initial (physiological changes described above);
− restructuring of the dynamic stereotype according to a favorable or unfavorable option;
− stable acclimatization.
If the option is favorable, the second stage smoothly flows into the stage of persistent acclimatization. An unfavorable course may be accompanied by maladaptive meteoneurosis, arthralgia, cephalgia, neuralgia, muscle pain, a decrease in the overall tone and performance of the body, and exacerbation of chronic diseases.
During the stage of persistent acclimatization, metabolism normalizes, performance increases, physical and mental development improves, and morbidity decreases.
Acclimatization to a hot climate is more difficult than to a cold one.
Personal hygiene, hardening and training play a big role in acclimatization. It is most advisable to organize migrations during transition periods of the year (spring, autumn), when differences in climate and weather conditions are not so pronounced. Successful acclimatization requires a set of social and hygienic measures specific to each climate.
Acclimatization to a cold climate is facilitated by the compact development of buildings, their placement with their ends facing the prevailing cold winds, the arrangement of covered passages between buildings, and a large usable area; clothing and footwear with poor thermal conductivity and vapor permeability; a balanced diet, high energy value of food, inclusion in the daily diet of at least 14% proteins (including 60% of animal origin), 30% fats, increased content of vitamins C, D, PP, group B; preventive ultraviolet irradiation using erythema lamps.
In hot climates, the following set of measures is advisable: loose placement of buildings, exclusion of western and southwestern orientation of windows, landscaping of the area, maximum use of the water factor (fountains, ponds, pools); rational ventilation, use of air conditioners, arrangement of open verandas, loggias, balconies; reducing the energy value of the diet due to animal fats, increasing the intake of water-soluble vitamins, mineral salts, main meals in the morning and evening; rational drinking regimen, drinking hot green tea to increase sweating; clothing – light, loose-fitting, headwear – wide-brimmed Panama hats, hats.
Weather– the average state of meteorological conditions in a given area during a short observation period (hours, days, weeks). Weather has a direct and indirect impact on people's health.
The direct influence of weather is its influence on heat transfer. Hot, windless weather combined with high air temperatures can cause heatstroke.
Weather with low temperatures, strong winds and high humidity can lead to hypothermia, decreased immunity, an increase in the number of colds, inflammatory diseases of the peripheral nervous system (sciatica, neuralgia, neuritis, myositis), frostbite and even freezing.
In the process of interaction of the human body with the air environment, adaptive mechanisms have appeared, the violation of which, due to a sharp change in the physical properties of the air, can lead to their failure and the development of pathological conditions in the form of a violation of the functional state of the body.
Weather sensitive people– people experiencing increased sensitivity (meteosensitivity) to changes in weather and climate. The human body's reactions to changes in weather and climate are called meteotropic. Unfavorable weather has a negative impact on the course of many diseases, for example: diseases of the joints, gastrointestinal tract (peptic ulcer), neuropsychic (manic-depressive psychosis), toxicosis of pregnant women becomes more severe, and an increase in the level of injuries is noted.
The occurrence of a meteotropic reaction may not coincide with visible weather changes, but is often associated with a change in the electromagnetic characteristics of the atmosphere preceding the development of unfavorable weather.
There are 3 degrees of weather sensitivity:
− mild (manifested by subjective malaise);
− average (change in blood pressure, ECG);
− severe (violations are pronounced), manifested by 5 types of meteopathic reactions:
cardiac (pain in the heart area, shortness of breath);
cerebral (headaches, dizziness, noise and ringing in the head);
asthenoneurotic (increased excitability, irritability, insomnia, changes in blood pressure);
mixed (a combination of cardiac and brain disorders);
uncertain (without clear localization, muscle pain and joint aches).
The severity of such reactions, as a rule, depends on the individual characteristics of the organism, as well as on the speed of weather changes.
Prevention of meteorological reactions can be daily, seasonal and urgent.
Everyday prevention involves general non-specific activities - hardening, physical education, spending time in the fresh air, etc.
Seasonal prevention is carried out in spring and autumn, when so-called seasonal disturbances of biological rhythms are observed and involves the use of medicines and vitamins.
Urgent prevention is carried out immediately before a weather change (based on data from a specialized medical weather forecast) and consists of using medications to prevent exacerbation of chronic diseases in a given patient.
Question No. 15: Physiological and hygienic significance of water. Sources of water for domestic and drinking water supply in Belarus. Classification of chemical substances found in natural water according to their significance for the body.
The human body is 63-65% water. It makes up the main part of the body's fluids - blood, lymph, tissue fluid, and glandular secretions. Water is the medium in which all metabolic processes take place; as a universal solvent, it is involved in the delivery of nutrients to organs and tissues and the removal of metabolic products, and ensures normal heat exchange between the body and the environment through evaporation. Every day a person excretes up to 3 liters of water through the kidneys, skin, and lungs, and with a load of up to 12 liters, the corresponding amount must be consumed. Using water in sufficient quantities promotes basic hygiene (body care, keeping household items clean, etc.); water is necessary for cooking and washing dishes, removing household waste, watering streets and plants. Natural reservoirs are widely used for recreational purposes for swimming. Hardening, playing sports. At the same time, water is an important healing factor: various physiotherapeutic procedures have a good effect, and balneology uses the healing properties of mineral waters and mud.
Sources of water for domestic and drinking water supply can be groundwater reserves, surface water bodies and atmospheric waters. Groundwater is formed from precipitation that filters through the soil and lingers above an impermeable horizon consisting of clay or granite.
According to the conditions of occurrence, groundwater can be:
1. GROUND accumulates above the first waterproof horizon from the surface. Depth of occurrence from 1-2 to tens of meters, used for constructing wells, can easily become contaminated.
2. INTERFORMAL UNCONSTRUCTED aquifers saturate the aquifer located between impermeable layers without reaching its waterproof roof. They lie deeper than the previous layer and can be used for both local and centralized water supply.
3. INTERFORMAL PRESSURE OR ARTESIAN waters are considered the best. They completely saturate the aquifer, reaching the waterproof roof and are therefore under pressure. They lie at depths of up to several hundred meters. This water is distinguished by its purity, transparency, low temperature, good taste and complete absence of microorganisms. Such waters can be used without pre-treatment.
SURFACE water is formed due to precipitation, groundwater, springs, streams, and swamps. They flow down uneven soil and accumulate above waterproof horizons in the form of flowing rivers, canals and standing water - ponds, lakes, reservoirs.
When assessing the chemical composition of water, we must remember that some indicators are natural (hardness, fluorine, iron, iodine), some appear either as a result of pollution (wastewater) or from the excessive use of water quality improving agents (coagulants, flocculants).
A special place is occupied by a group of indicators that are an indirect sign of fecal contamination of water - certain unstable organic substances in water and their breakdown products - ammonium salts, nitrites and nitrates.
Question No. 16: Hygienic requirements for water quality. Criteria for evaluation. Methods for improving water quality.
Quality requirements waters can be divided into three groups:
1) safety in terms of epidemics;
2) harmlessness in chemical composition;
3) favorable organoleptic properties.
When assessing the organoleptic properties of water, transparency, color, taste, smell are determined - indicators that may primarily alarm the consumer.
When assessing the chemical composition of water, we must remember that some indicators are natural (hardness, fluorine, iron, iodine), some appear either as a result of pollution (wastewater), or from the excessive use of water quality improving agents (coagulants, flocculants).
A special place is occupied by a group of indicators that are an indirect sign of fecal contamination of water - certain unstable organic substances in water and their decay products - ammonium salts, nitrites and nitrates.
It should be noted that the relatively low concentrations in which these compounds are found in water do not in themselves pose any particular harm to humans, but indicate water contamination with organic substances of animal (sometimes plant) origin. This group includes the determination of sulfuric and phosphoric acid salts, as well as chlorides, which serve as a characteristic sign of water contamination with urine and feces.
Getting water , does not contain pathogenic agents, is provided:
1) choosing unpolluted water sources;
2) effective purification and disinfection of water (in case of contamination with human and animal feces);
3) a guarantee that the treated water will not be contaminated in the distribution network when supplied to the consumer.
Taken as an indicator bacterium of fecal contamination Escherichia coli, which largely satisfies the following requirements:
1) is present in large quantities in the feces of humans and warm-blooded animals;
2) quickly detected using simple methods;
3) does not develop in natural water;
4) its persistence in water and the degree of removal during water purification are similar to those for pathogens of water origin.
Thus, the problem of drinking water quality is of particular relevance and significance for the livelihoods and protection of public health. Polluted water is the cause of mass diseases, increased mortality, especially among children, causing increased social tension. The result of research in order to guarantee the safety and harmlessness of drinking water was, in particular, the release of a new edition of the “WHO Guide to the Quality Control of Drinking Water” with a significantly expanded and adjusted list of standardized indicators and the preparation of the European Community Directive on the quality of water intended for drinking purposes , with the regulation of a wide range of standards, organized forms and methods of control. To achieve established standards, water needs to be purified.
Cleaning includes the following processes:
Ø storage;
Ø sedimentation or removal of mechanical impurities, pre-filtration;
Ø subsequent filtration;
Ø disinfection.
Storage - During storage of water in lakes or reservoirs, the microbiological quality of water is significantly improved as a result of sedimentation, the bactericidal effect of UV radiation in the surface layers, depletion of bacterial nutrients and the activity of competitive antagonistic organisms. At the same time, the reduction in the content of bacteria indicators of fecal pollution, salmonella and enteroviruses is about 90%, being greatest in the summer with a retention period in water of about 3–4 weeks.
If the water has not passed the specified storage standards, preliminary disinfection is carried out. This destroys living organisms and reduces the amount of fecal bacteria and pathogenic bacterial strains, while also helping to remove algae during coagulation and filtration. A disadvantage of disinfection is that when chlorine is used in large quantities, chlorinated organic compounds and biodegradable organic carbon can be formed.
▪ Sedimentation or removal of mechanical impurities.
Filtration through fine-pore filters with an average hole diameter of 30 microns is an effective way to remove large quantities of microalgae and zooplankton, which can clog or even penetrate the filters. This process has little effect on reducing fecal bacteria and enteric pathogens, primarily due to the smaller size of the bacteria compared to standard filter pore sizes.
▪ Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation.
Coagulation- the process of enlargement, aggregation of colloidal and dispersed impurities of water, occurring as a result of their mutual adhesion under the influence of forces of molecular origin. Coagulation ends with the formation of aggregates visible to the naked eye - flakes - large coacervates. The resulting flocs are precipitated, absorbing and capturing natural colored substances, mineral particles and causing a significant reduction in turbidity and the content of protozoan bacteria and viruses. To speed up the coagulation process, so-called flocculants- high-molecular synthetic compounds of anionic and cationic types.
It should be noted that during filtration, bacteria and viruses are sorption on the surface of suspended particles and flakes and co-precipitation in the settling tank or the pores of the filter media. Some bacteria and viruses, remaining free in the water, penetrate through treatment facilities and are contained in filtered water.
To create a reliable and manageable last barrier to the possible transmission of bacterial and viral diseases through water is used disinfection. For this purpose, reagent (chlorination and ozonation) and non-reagent (UV radiation, exposure to gamma rays and other methods) are widely used.
In many countries, chlorination is widely used for disinfection. The disinfecting effect is exerted by the hypochloride ion OCl – and undissociated hypochlorous acid.
The process of water disinfection takes place in 2 stages:
▪ the disinfecting agent diffuses into the bacterial cell;
▪ reacts with cell enzymes.
The speed of the process depends on the kinetics of diffusion of the disinfecting agent into the cell and the kinetics of cell death as a result of their metabolism. Therefore, the speed of disinfection increases:
Ø with increasing concentration of the disinfectant in water;
Ø increasing its temperature;
Ø with the transition of the disinfecting agent into a non-dissociable form, since the diffusion of molecules through the cell membrane occurs faster than hydrated ions formed during dissociation.
The effectiveness of disinfection is reduced in the presence of organic substances in water that are capable of oxidation-reduction reactions and other possible reducing agents, as well as colloidal and suspended substances that envelop bacteria and interfere with the contact of the disinfecting agent with them.
An integral indicator of water properties that interfere with disinfection is chlorine absorption, measured by the amount of chlorine required to oxidize the reducing agents present in the water. It is directly proportional to the dose of chlorine and contact time.
The effectiveness of chlorination is influenced by a number of factors:
· biological characteristics of microorganisms;
· bactericidal properties of chlorine preparations;
· state of the aquatic environment;
· conditions under which disinfection occurs.
The optimal dose of active chlorine is made up of the amount necessary to satisfy the chlorine absorption of water, provide a bactericidal effect and a certain amount of so-called residual chlorine present in the disinfected water and indicating the completion of the disinfection process.
Residual chlorine, along with the coli index, serves as an indirect indicator of water safety in epidemiological terms. The amount of residual chlorine is normalized by SanPiN at different levels depending on its condition: for combined (chloramine) chlorine - 0.8–1.2 mg/l. For free (hypochlorous or perchloric acid - hypochloride ion) - 0.3–
0.5 mg/l. In the specified concentration range, residual chlorine does not change the organoleptic properties and at the same time can be accurately determined by analytical methods. The content of residual chlorine is standardized in the water leaving the waterworks, after clean water reservoirs. Chlorination, as a method of water disinfection, has some disadvantages:
· the need to comply with numerous safety requirements;
· long contact time to achieve a disinfecting effect;
· formation of organochlorine compounds in water that are not indifferent to the body.
However, the level of disinfection by-products can be reduced by optimizing the cleaning technology. Removing organic matter before disinfection reduces the likelihood of the formation of potentially dangerous by-products such as: chlorate, chlorite, chlorophenols, trihalomethanes (bromoform, dibromochloromethane, chloroform).
One of the promising methods of disinfection is ozonation. The advantage of ozone over chlorine in water disinfection is that ozone does not form compounds similar to organochlorines in water, improves the organoleptic properties of water and provides a bactericidal effect with less contact time (up to 10 minutes). Ozone is more effective against pathogenic protozoa present in water (giardia, dysenteric amoeba). However, the widespread introduction of ozonation into water treatment practice is hampered by the high energy intensity of the ozone production process.
The spread of organisms around the planet is a very widespread phenomenon in nature, which has probably existed almost since their appearance on the planet. In certain periods of the existence of the animal and plant world, settlement proceeded with varying intensity. During the twentieth century, the intensity of such settlement increased significantly, which is associated not so much with natural processes as with active nature-transforming human activity (Elton, 1960).
As noted by A.F. Karpevich (1975), in the field of acclimatization of aquatic animals for a long time there were no solid theoretical principles. It was assumed that at the present stage of the evolution of aquatic organisms, the process of their settlement has stopped, and the complex of adaptations of aquatic organisms is adapted to a specific habitat. In addition, there cannot be free ecological niches in nature, so the successful introduction of a new species of aquatic animals into a particular biocenosis is extremely unlikely. However, the experience that accumulated as civilization developed showed that the settlement of aquatic organisms is not only theoretically possible, but also actually exists in nature.
The lack of theoretical justification for acclimatization led to the low intensity and efficiency of this process if it was carried out artificially. The first documented experiment in the artificial relocation of fish in Russia was carried out with sterlet ( Acipenser ruthenus), universe in 1763 in the river. Neva. In 1857, the Russian Society for Acclimatization was created. However, until the 20s. XX century the intensity of acclimatization work was low: from 1820 to 1850. Only 5 fish transfers were registered, from 1990 to 1920. - 200 (Karpevich, 1975; Stroganova, Zadoenko, 2000).
The number of introductions increased sharply in 1920-1940. During this period, more than 1,500 transplants of 40 types and forms were carried out. However, “their efficiency coefficient” was very low due to poor theoretical knowledge of the laws of the acclimatization process and a number of other reasons (Karpevich, 1975).
The first theoretical justification for the need and possibility of acclimatization of aquatic organisms in the former USSR was given by L.A. Zenkevich (1940), who examined the problems of the introduction of food invertebrates into the Caspian Sea. In the 1940-1980s. The greatest contribution to the solution of theoretical and practical issues of acclimatization of aquatic organisms was made by A.F. Karpevich (1947, 1948, 1960, 1962, 1968, 1975, etc.), E.V. Burmakin (1956, 1961), P.A. Dryagin (1953, 1954), F.D. Morduchai-Boltovskoy (1960), T.S. Russ (1962, 1965) and a number of other researchers. In the Azov-Black Sea region, among the most significant, in our opinion, studies are the works of S.I. Dorosheva (1964), Yu.I. Abaeva (1971).
A detailed interpretation of the terms used when considering issues related to acclimatization is given by A.F. Karpevich (1975, 1998). According to her views:
Introduction is the transfer of organisms with the aim of introducing them into a new area, body of water, or culture. It is the first stage of the acclimatization process, but the introduction does not necessarily end with the acclimatization of the introduced species.
Acclimatization is the process of adaptation of introduced individuals and their offspring to new environmental conditions, as well as the formation of a new population of the species in them on the basis of a limited gene pool and under the influence of natural selection, as a result of which changes occur in the biology and morpho-physiological appearance of subsequent generations of the migrant.
Invasion is the process of transferring individuals to a particular body of water.
Stocking is the regular release of juveniles of the same species into certain water bodies for feeding.
Naturalization is the final phase of the acclimatization process, when the invader has adapted to new conditions, its niche and relationships with the natives in the ecosystem of the reservoir have been determined, a mobile equilibrium in the number of the new population has been established, and the possibility of its use for food or fishing purposes has emerged.
Staged acclimatization is incomplete acclimatization, when some stages of the development of the invader cannot be completed in the conditions of the inhabited reservoir and take place in other reservoirs or under the direct influence of humans.
Reacclimatization is the introduction of individuals of a species in order to restore its lost habitat.
Autoacclimatization (self-acclimatization) is the independent introduction of aquatic organisms with their subsequent acclimatization in a new body of water. A.F. Karpevich (1975) identified two components in this process - paleospontaneous settlement and self-acclimatization without human participation and non-spontaneous settlement and acclimatization with direct or indirect human participation.
Of course, the interpretation of these terms is quite diverse.
For example, L.A. Zenkevich (1940) understood acclimatization as the successful existence and development of any living organism in a new habitat under natural conditions and distinguished between acclimatization in the natural environment and in the process of artificial cultivation.
The Biological Encyclopedic Dictionary (1989) provides the following interpretation of this concept: “Acclimatization is the adaptation of organisms to new or changed conditions of existence, in which they go through all stages of development and produce viable offspring” (p. 14).
According to N.Z. Stroganova and I.N. Zadoenko (2000), acclimatization of aquatic organisms is “a biological and biotechnical process, which is the introduction of objects delivered from one reservoir, region, country to another, where they were not previously present or where they have disappeared, with the aim of their full or partial naturalization, and also other forms of economic use...” (p.51).
The reservoir from which the organism moves is called the donor reservoir, and the reservoir where the organism moves is called the recipient reservoir. The directions of invasion of new species are called vectors and are usually divided into natural and anthropogenic. The former are usually characterized by relatively low rates of settlement, the latter – by faster ones (Alimov et al., 2000; Gorelov, 2000).
The process of acclimatization of a species is always accompanied by certain interactions with elements of local biocenoses. In this regard, L.A. Zenkevich (1940) identified two types of acclimatization - acclimatization of introduction and acclimatization of replacement. The first form of acclimatization occurs when there is a free ecological niche in the reservoir occupied by the acclimatizer, as a result of which it practically does not compete with local species. During acclimatization of replacement, invaders invade the ecological niches of local species and enter into competitive relations with native forms for certain environmental factors.
Representations L.A. Zenkevich (1940) about the types of acclimatization were supplemented by A.F. Karpevich (1975), who also distinguished the acclimation of rejection, the acclimatization of replenishment and the acclimatization of construction. In the first case, the acclimatizer enters into a competitive relationship with local species, but is inferior to them in this fight and either dies or turns out to be very few in number. During acclimatization of recruitment, invaders replenish the composition of the depleted population of water bodies. During acclimatization construction, settlers are selected to build food chains, communities, or faunas of water bodies.
The number of acclimatizing species in a reservoir does not remain constant. This was noticed by L.A. Zenkevich (1940). A.F. Karpevich (1975) identified five “nodal phases of the process of acclimatization and naturalization of a species in new conditions” (p. 119):
1. Survival of resettled individuals in new conditions is a period of physiological adaptation;
2. Reproduction of individuals and the beginning of population formation;
3. The maximum number of migrants is the “explosion” phase;
4. Exacerbation of the contradictions between the immigrant and the biotic environment;
5. Naturalization in new conditions.
However, it should be noted that traditional approaches to the degree of usefulness of acclimatization work have recently begun to be significantly revised. So, Yu.Yu. Dgebuadze (2000) uses the concept of “biological invasion”, by which he understands all cases of penetration of living organisms into ecosystems located outside their natural range. He points out that in the former USSR it was long believed that with extensive farming it was possible to significantly increase the yield of fish products through acclimatization work, and therefore large-scale resettlement of aquatic organisms was carried out. At the same time, when selecting acclimatizing species, we primarily took into account their production and consumer qualities, and the potential for their adaptation to the abiotic factors of the new reservoir. One of the most important criteria was also the presence of free ecological niches. But most of the acclimatization activities carried out ended in failure (which means the researchers did not take into account some of the most important factors for acclimatization). So, E.V. Burmakin (1963) indicated that in the period from 1763 to 1957. in 73% of transplants, the result of acclimatization was either negative or not detected at all. A number of similar examples can be given in relation to fish introduced into the water bodies of the North-Western Caucasus. The introduction of white fish and Aral barbel into the region ended in failure, despite the huge financial costs, and work to populate the Sea of Azov with juvenile Caspian sturgeon was ineffective. There was no acclimatization of white and bighead carp, white and black carp, and paddlefish. Their numbers in natural reservoirs can only be maintained through artificial reproduction. At the same time, various self-acclimatizing agents appear and quickly settle in reservoirs.
There are many examples of the negative impact of invaders on local ecosystems and, most likely, they even outweigh the positive impact.
Let us give just a few examples concerning fish.
1. A textbook example was the consequences of the introduction of sea lamprey into the Great American Lakes ( Petromyzon marinus). For a long time she lived only in the lake. Ontario, in whose tributaries it spawned. The penetration of lamprey into other lakes of the system was prevented by Niagara Falls. However, in 1829, to ensure navigation, a bypass canal was built, which ensured the passage of lampreys into other reservoirs. As a result of its predation, enormous damage was caused to local ichthyocenoses and, above all, to the stocks of whitefish, salmon, and chukuchans, the catches of which decreased hundreds of times (Elton, 1960).
2. In the 1950s. British ichthyologists decided to introduce Nile perch into African Lake Victoria ( Lates niloticus), one of the largest predatory fish species in Africa. The purpose of such acclimatization was to occupy the niche of a large predator. Due to the flood, several fish kept in ponds near the lake fell into it. By the beginning of the 1970s. the perch spread throughout the reservoir and significantly undermined the stocks and species diversity of local cichlids. Thus, catches of haplochromis fell from 1200-2200 kg/ha in the mid-1970s. up to 200-400 kg in the mid-1980s. The local population switched from eating sun-dried haplochromis to catching perch. These large fish had to be heat-treated before being eaten. To achieve this, people began cutting down forests along the banks, which increased the flow of nutrients into the waters of the lake and led to its eutrophication and “blooming” of the water. The final result of the acclimatization of the Nile perch was the transformation of the local ecosystem, a sharp drop in the species diversity of the ichthyofauna (Dgebuadze, 2000).
The most powerful anthropogenic factor in the spread of aquatic organisms on a global scale is currently considered to be their transportation using water transport with ballast water or on ship hulls (Alimov et al., 2000). This phenomenon has intensified recently, because... The transportation process itself intensified and ship designs changed. Now ballast water is pumped into the so-called. “second bottom”, which allows the hydrobionts that come with them to avoid the negative effects of toxic substances and more easily endure transportation. The capacity for processing ballast water in most Russian ports is insufficient, which leads to its discharge directly into the sea. With a very high degree of probability, it can be argued that it was with the ballast waters of ships that ctenophores and the rapana gastropod were brought to the Black Sea. It is possible that the northern blue whiting ( Micromesistius poutassou) and whitefin butterflyfish.
In the continental water bodies of Russia, most likely, the most important factors in the settlement of aquatic organisms were targeted acclimatization measures and the connection of rivers from different river systems by canals (Alimov et al., 2000).
Acclimatization is the adaptation of living organisms to new, unusual climatic and geographical conditions. Without acclimatization preparation, the success of an ascent is problematic, especially when it is made to a height of more than 5000. Almost everyone feels the influence of altitude in the first days after climbing to a level of 1500-2000 m, and the main manifestations for many begin to affect themselves from 2500-3000 m. This is a headache pain, nausea, vomiting (so-called mountain sickness).
In addition, an organism that is not prepared for oxygen starvation is more susceptible to various diseases, performance is significantly reduced, and volitional qualities are reduced to zero. Often these symptoms appear when descending from 3000-3500m, in others they intensify at stops and decrease when moving. But they disappear completely only with a decrease in altitude and (or) taking appropriate medications. As a rule (if you go down) these symptoms disappear by morning, but you need to take a day of rest.
Oxygen is necessary for all organs and tissues of the human body during metabolism. Its consumption is directly proportional to the activity of the body. The transfer of oxygen is carried out by red blood cells - erythrocytes containing a substance - hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin), which, due to the difference in the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood and in the alveoli, is saturated with oxygen and transports it throughout the body. With altitude, the partial pressure of oxygen in the air decreases (and not the amount of oxygen in general, which is one of the widespread misconceptions), which causes a decrease in blood oxygen saturation.
Therefore, the first reaction (first phase) of the body to a decrease in external pressure is an increase in heart rate, an increase in blood pressure and an increase in pulmonary ventilation (the so-called hyperventilation), which is actually the cause of headaches, etc. There is an expansion of capillaries in the tissues of the body even before just in the muscles. In addition, reserve blood from the spleen and liver is included in the blood circulation. These are compensatory processes that occur in the first phase of acclimatization, which usually ends after 7-14 days.
In the second phase of acclimatization, the lack of oxygen begins to affect the bone marrow, which begins to produce an increased number of red blood cells and introduce them into the blood circulation. This increases hemoglobin in the blood. The normal number of red blood cells in 1 cubic mm is about 4.5-5.0 million in men and 4.0-4.5 million in women. During the acclimatization period, the number of red blood cells increases to 7.0 and even 8.0 million per 1 cubic mm, which leads to an increase in hemoglobin. It has been established that the second phase of acclimatization is completely completed three weeks after the start of work on the route. This is what should determine the planned duration of the acclimatization period and influence the acclimatization tactics. Reaching high altitudes can only be achieved reliably after full adaptation.
From a physiological point of view, the best system is to gradually reach higher altitudes with a load (preferably with a short stay at the achieved height, for example, spending the night), alternating with a descent down to the base camp. Staying and resting at the base camp for one or two days restores strength and consolidates the resulting acclimatization while maintaining a relative balance between acclimatization and deterioration - exhaustive exhaustion of the body, although the climber will never reach the level of his performance under flat conditions. This implies the need for the climber to strive to achieve very high performance in conditions of the plain, or better yet, mid-mountain conditions. You can't buy it in one year. It is developed, as a rule, by many years (depending on the genetic characteristics of the body) of training in general and special physical and functional training with regular periodic medical monitoring (including at least an annual medical examination for an in-depth examination) and daily constant self-monitoring of well-being (lying pulse after waking up, body weight, etc.).
As the experience of high-altitude expeditions shows, for better recuperation while maintaining the achieved acclimatization after completing the installation of intermediate and assault camps, a 2-4-day rest at an altitude of 500-1000 m below the altitude of the base camp is advisable. According to modern ideas, 5300 m is the boundary of the high-mountain zone, in which complete acclimatization may yet occur. In the range from 7000 to 7800 m, one cannot speak of complete acclimatization, so the body begins to consume its own reserves without the possibility of replenishing them. A climber can stay in this zone for up to 4-5 days, after which it is necessary to descend lower. The zone above 7800 m is called the “altitude death zone”. Staying there for 2-3 days without an oxygen apparatus causes rapid deterioration. When developing a strategy and tactics for oxygen-free high-altitude ascent, it is advisable to take the above into account
Before our first visit abroad, many of us may not even be aware of the concept of “acclimatization.” It’s different - you live in your usual environment, and you don’t even realize that your body can present such an unpleasant surprise in the form of resistance to new environmental conditions. In this material we will tell you about what acclimatization is, when, how and under what conditions can it manifest itself, and how to deal with it?
Acclimatization is a process when the body adapts to new conditions that arise outside its usual habitat. In essence, we are talking about the restructuring of the human body and adaptation to new conditions of the surrounding world. Some people practically do not notice acclimatization, while others experience characteristic signs of this phenomenon - the temperature rises, chills are observed, migraines are tormented, sometimes even nausea, chronic diseases worsen.
As practice shows, acclimatization lasts on average 2-3 days, after which the body adapts and returns to normal. Children under the age of 10-12 years are especially susceptible to this process - their acclimatization can take from 1 week to 10 days, respectively.
Is acclimatization the norm or a negative phenomenon?
Doctors believe that acclimatization is a completely normal phenomenon. This is how the body reminds itself of itself, “expresses its interest” in new living conditions. Some doctors even recommend that their patients change their habitats - the more often the body experiences acclimatization, the better for it - many chronic diseases may completely recede.
Acclimatization is an inevitable process of the body adapting to new environmental conditions, and you can cope with this unpleasant phenomenon by strengthening the immune system and taking certain medications.
Who is most susceptible to acclimatization?
As we have already noted, children are most susceptible to this process. In addition, it is more difficult for people with weakened immune systems, the elderly, and those who are most sensitive to climate change to acclimatize to new conditions.
By the way, the healthier a person leads a lifestyle, the easier it is for him to adapt to a new environment. If the immune system is weakened, then acclimatization abroad cannot be avoided.
Acclimatization is especially pronounced when a person goes to hot countries, although during this period of time he is accustomed to living in winter. As a result, a person’s heat transfer process is disrupted abroad and disruptions in the functioning of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems are observed. Dry climates, by the way, are much easier to tolerate than humid ones. Acclimatization also occurs when a person moves from summer to winter. Everything affects a person’s well-being: a change in time zone, a change in humidity, temperature, food, water.
When should I expect acclimatization?Acclimatization does not occur instantly - you should not think that immediately after crossing the border you will immediately suffer from suffocation and headaches. This process is gradual and manifests itself, as a rule, on the second or third day of being in a new environment. Most often, people think that they suffer from colds that were triggered by ordinary events - drinking cold water, swimming in the pool, or a draft in the car. Usually this lethargic state lasts for 2-4 days. Therefore, if you go on vacation for a week, be prepared that acclimatization will interfere with your relaxation - you may spend half of your vacation in your room. On the other hand, even such passive rest will help you unload after a hard work marathon.
Reacclimatization - the reverse process after returning home
There is also such a thing as reacclimatization - this is the return of the body to its normal state. It manifests itself in the same way as acclimatization - body aches, headache, chills, fever. This phenomenon is also often experienced by people with weakened immune systems. how sad it is, children and old people.
How to reduce manifestations?
Doctors recommend preparing for new climatic conditions in advance. At least a month in advance, you need to do exercises every morning, and also concentrate on a balanced diet. For 1.5 months, you can take homeopathic medicines that strengthen the immune system. If you are prone to colds, your doctor may also prescribe you a special course of vitamins. All these activities will significantly improve your health and help you go through the acclimatization process more easily.
If acclimatization could not be avoided, you can get out of the situation while on vacation by taking anti-allergy medications. They help well to adapt to new conditions, but first you should consult a doctor and choose an individual set of medications for yourself.